Unveiling History

The Complete History Of the Roman Empire

The Roman Empire stands as one of the most influential civilizations in human history, leaving an indelible mark on the world that persists to this day. From its humble beginnings as a small city-state to its zenith as a vast empire spanning three continents, Rome’s legacy encompasses government, law, architecture, engineering, and culture.

Key historical figures emerged throughout Rome’s history, shaping not only their era but the future of Western civilization:

 

  • Julius Caesar: The brilliant military strategist who paved the way for the empire.
  • Augustus: Established the foundations of imperial rule and the Pax Romana
  • Marcus Aurelius: The philosopher-emperor whose “Meditations” continue to inspire readers today.

The rise and fall of Rome provide timeless lessons in leadership, governance, and the cyclical nature of civilizations. By examining the lives and decisions of Roman historical figures, we can draw inspiration for our own personal growth and ambitions.

The legacy of Rome reminds us that human potential knows few bounds. With vision, perseverance, and ingenuity, seemingly insurmountable challenges can be overcome, leaving a lasting impact on the world.

Founding and Monarchy (753 BCE - 509 BCE)

From Fatricide, to the early conquest of Italy. Read where Rome's ideology and ardour was born

The Roman Republic (509 BCE -27 BCE)

The Forge of Ancient Power

Early Empire / Principate (27 BCE - 284 CE)

At the height of its power, Rome begins to falter.

Crisis of the Third Century (235 CE - 284 CE)

A storm of chaos that shook the Roman Empire to its core.

Late Empire / Dominate (284 CE - 476 CE)

As the Roman Empire Divides Into East and West, Rome Is Strugling To Survive

Fall of the Western Roman Empire (376 CE - 476 CE)

The Western Roman Empire, once a beacon of civilization, succumbed to the darkness of history.

Rome's Origins and the Monarchy Era (753-509 BCE)

From wolf-nursed twins to tyrant kings, Rome's regal cradle rocked with myth and might, forging an eternal city from the clay of seven hills.

Painting from the series “The Course Of Empire”, by Thomas Cole depicting the Rise and Fall Of Rome

Founding Rome & The Monarchy

The 7 legendary Kings of Rome

Unveil the epic saga of Rome’s birth, where legends intertwine with history, forging a kingdom destined for greatness.
Dive deeper into history: Click “Learn More” anywhere on the timeline to unlock detailed pages for each pivotal moment, because sometimes just a date isn’t enough…

753 BCE- Founding of Rome - Romulus becomes the first king of Rome until 715 BCE

Romulus and Remus found Rome in 753BCE on April 21st, according to legend and Varro. Romulus story reflects themes of conflict, unity, and divine favor that were central to Roman culture.

  • Establishes Senate and Roman Legions
  • Institutes various religious and political practices
Romulus and Remus disputing over the founding of Rome

715 BCE - 673 BCE Second King of Rome, Numa Pompilius

A kind wise king, whom created peace and prosperity for Rome.

  • Peaceful Reign and Religious Reforms
  • Introduced the Roman Calendar and various priestly offices
Numa Pompilius and the Nymph Egeria
Numa Pompilius and the Nymph Egeria which legends said to have received divine guidance from

673 BCE - 642 BCE Third King of Rome, Tullus Hostilius

The opposite of what came before him, but nonetheless the man needed to continue the forging of Rome. His war like spirit ignited the conquest of the italian Peninsula

  • Destroyed the city of Alba Longa
  • Constructed the Curia Hostilia, the first Roman Senate House 
Extent of the Roman Empire under Tiberius
Battle of Tullus Hostilius against the Veientes

642 BCE - 617 BCE Fourth King of Rome, Ancus Marcius

His reign marked a balance between war and peace, setting a precedent for future Roman kings and rulers. His military successes helped strengthen Rome’s position in the region, while his contributions to religion and infrastructure further solidified Rome's internal organization.

  • Founded the City port of Ostia
  • Constructed the first bridge of the Tiber River
Ancus MArcius Coin
Ancus Marcius Coin

616 BCE - 578 BCE Fifth King of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus

Known for his Etruscan origins and his significant contributions to the city's development. His military successes against the Latins, Etruscans, and Sabines brought glory and welath to Rome.

  • Initiated the building of the Cloaca Maxima ( great sewer system), Circus Maximus
  • First Roman ruler to celebrate a Roman triumph
Tarquin consulting Attus Nevius the Augur
Tarquin consulting Attus Nevius the Augur

578-535 BCE Sixth King of Rome, Servius Tullius

If he was born today, Servius Tullius would be on every motivational post on social media. Possibly, born a slave rose to be the King of Rome. His humble origin probably contributed to its inclusive reforms that laid the ground work for Rome to become a Republic.

  • Build the first walls around Rome
  • Divided people into classes based on wealth
Tullia Drives over the Corpse of her Father, Servius Tullius
Tullia Drives over the Corpse of her Father, Servius Tullius

535-509 BCE Sixth King of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus

A man so cruel that changed the meaning of the word king, from ruler to Disctator. His tyranny, created a strong anti-monarchy sentiment in the Roman psyche, and ultimetly led to the Roman Republic

  • His actions led to the fall of the Roman Monarchy 
  • The term “Tarquin” became synonymous with a tyrant in Roman political discourse
Mercurius by Artus Quellinus the Elder
Tarquinius Superbus makes himself King; from The Comic History of Rome by Gilbert Abbott à Beckett (c. 1850s)

The Roman Monarchy came to an abrupt end around 509 BCE. The last king Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, was deposed after a violent, cruel and despotic rule. His alienation of the Roman people ultimetly lead to its downfall and the alienation of his family. 

His rule taught the roman people that power in the hands of one person is ultimetly a dangerous thing. This line of thought led to the Roman Republic and representative rulers, and a system of check and balances so power will not be abused anymore. 

The history of the 7 legendary Kings of Rome, is shrouded in darkness and mythology. At times it is hard to distinguish reality and myth, however their stories undeniably influenced Rome’s history

The Roman Republic 509 BCE - 27 BCE

Forged in the fires of rebellion against tyranny, the Roman Republic rose in 509 BCE, a bold experiment in shared power and civic duty. The Roman Republic forged an empire with the hammer of ambition and the anvil of law, its glory echoing through millennia.

The Death of Julius Caesar (1806) by Vincenzo Camuccini

One men shall not rule Rome again...

Triumph, Turmoil, and the Path to Empire

The struggle of a city-state growing out of its shell and becoming an Empire. Greed, Power, Blood, Sweat, Tears, Murder… Events that Would make HBO jealous of its twists and turns…
Dive deeper into history: Click “Learn More” anywhere on the timeline to unlock detailed pages for each pivotal moment, because sometimes just a date isn’t enough…

509 BCE- The First 2 Semi Legendary Consuls who funded the republic were apointed

Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus & Lucius Tarquinius Brutus: The two men led the revolution against the monarchy and help overthrow it

  • Collatinus Wife was Lucrecia. Her rape by the son of the last king of Rome, caused the overthrow of the monarchy
  • Brutus first act as a consul was to make the people of Rome swear to never accept a king again
"The oath of Brutus" by François-Joseph Navez
"The oath of Brutus" by François-Joseph Navez

509 BCE- First treaty with Carthage

Carthage was a superpower at the time and Rome negotiated like an equal

  • The treaty dealt with matters of trade and divided the spheres of influence between the two powers
  • Set the stage for future interactions, including during the Punic Wars
Rome carthage first treaty
Division of the area: 1: Area prohibited to Rome 2: Area tolerated in emergencies 3: Open waters

508 BCE - Lars Porsena,Etruscan King of Chiusi, lays siege to Rome

Chiusi was a powerful Etruscan city, which posed an early threat to the republic. History diverges into two ways

  • Gaius Mucius’s failed assassination of Porsena and his subsequent show of courage gave peace to Rome
  • Cloelia escaped Porsena’s camp with other Roman virgins, and upon her return, Porsena, impressed by her bravery, allowed her to choose half the remaining hostages to be freed
Mucius Scaevola before Lars Porsenna (1620s) by Rubens and van Dyck.

507 BCE - Consacration of the temple of Jupiter

It was considered to be the most important Temple in Rome, situated in Capitoline Hill

  • Throughout its history its Etruscan architecture remained
  • Cloelia escaped Porsena’s camp with other Roman virgins, and upon her return, Porsena, impressed by her bravery, allowed her to choose half the remaining hostages to be freed
Speculative model of the first Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, 509 BC
Mucius Scaevola before Lars Porsenna (1620s) by Rubens and van Dyck.

504 BCE-Claudii migrate from Sabines land to Rome

Claudii became one of the most prominent Roman family

  • Scipio Africanus, the general who defeated Hannibal was a Claudian
  • Tiberius the second Roman Emperor was also part of this family
Extent of the Roman Empire under Tiberius

501 BCE - Apointment of the first Dictator, Titus Larcius

The Role of Dictator was called upon in time of great crises, when Rome's survival was at stake, and swift and decive actions were needed. One person held almost absolute power for a six month period

  • War was brewing on all sides for Rome with the Sabines and the Latins
  • Larcius was a respected leader and military commander and was chosen for his qualities

496 BCE -Battle of Lake Regillus with the Latin League

The exact year is disputed. Livy places the battle at 499 BCE, and other historians even 493 and 489 BCE. 496 BCE is the most accepted year of the battle.

  • 24,700 Romans vs. 43,000 Latins = Rome Victory
  • End of Tarquinian attempts to retake the Roman throne
fighting at the Battle of Lake Regillus, 1880 illustration by John Reinhard Weguelin
Fighting at the Battle of Lake Regillus, 1880 illustration by John Reinhard Weguelin

497 BCE First temple dedicated to Saturn was build

Saturn was the Roman god of agriculture, wealth, liberation, and time, as well as harvest. Saturn was also considered a god of plenty and abundance, often linked to prosperity and wealth.

  • His Greek equivalent was Cronus, the father of Zeus
  • During Saturn’s religious holiday, Romans allowed more freedom to their slaves and exchanged gifts to each other
What remains of the temple of Saturn in the Forum Romanum
What remains of the temple of Saturn in the Forum Romanum

495 BCE Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the last king of Rome dies

The cruel tyrant died in seclusion in Cumae. After he was overthrown he tried to win the throne back several times, but ultimetly failed, and the Republic road to greatness was not stopped...

495 BCE The Temple of Mercury is inagurated

God of financial gain, commerce, eloquence, messages, communication, travelers, boundaries, luck, trickery, merchants, thieves

  • Inspire by two gods: Turms (Etruscan) and Hermes (Greek)
  • Mercury might have been one of the most popular Deities in Pompeii
Mercurius by Artus Quellinus the Elder
Mercurius by Artus Quellinus the Elder

494 BCE - First plebeian secession; creation of the office of Tribune of the Plebs

Roman plebeians, dissatisfied with their lack of political representation, staged a mass exodus from the city, leading to the creation of the office of Tribune of the Plebs to protect their rights.

  • Lucius Sicinius Vellutus initiated the secession
  • Harming a representative of the Tribune of the Plebs was punished by death
The Secession of the People to the Mons Sacer, engraving by Bartolomeo Barloccini, 1849.
Tarquinius Superbus makes himself King; from The Comic History of Rome by Gilbert Abbott à Beckett (c. 1850s)

493 BCE - Treaty of Cassius or Foedus Cassianum

After the Battle of Lake Regillus, this treaty ended the war between Rome and the Latin League

  • The treaty put Rome as an equal power with all the Latin League cities combined
  • Served as a model for Rome when dealing politically inside the Italian Peninsula
An engraving of Lake Regillus, where the battle took place.
An engraving of Lake Regillus

493 BCE - Famine Strikes Rome

As a result of the Plebian secession, crops were not sown that year

  • The Consuls arranged for grain to be imported from Etruria
  • More grain was imported from Sicily the next year, which again increased the tensions between classes  

491 BCE -Gnaeus Marcius Coriolanus is exiled

Coriolanus a Roman general know for his valor, argued that grain should be distributed to the plebs only after the reforms that they gained in 494 be reversed. His statements led to outage and a trial against him

  • Tribune of the Plebs put him on trial and was found guilty
  • Coriolanus fled to the Volsci in exile
Veturia at the Feet of Coriolanus by Gaspare Landi
Veturia(Corolianus' mother) at the Feet of Coriolanus by Gaspare Landi

488 BCE - Coriolanus helped by the Volsci laid siege to Rome

From this year marked intermittent hostilities with the Aequi and Volsci for the next 50 years

  • Coriolanus, due to its love for Rome lifted the siege
  • The Volsci returned to attack Rome with the help of the Aequi, but failed
Coriolanus' mother pleads with her son not to lay siege to Rome. Illustration from The Story of the Romans by Helene Guerber
Coriolanus' mother pleads with her son not to lay siege to Rome. Illustration from The Story of the Romans by Helene Guerber

484 BCE -Temple for Castor & Pollux known together as Dioscuri is inagurated

The dedication was officiated by Aulus Postumius following its victory from the Battle of Lake Regillus

  • Their Mother was Leda, a Spartan Queen, but had different fathers. Thus making the pair an example of heteropaternal superfecundation
  • Patrons of sailors, associated with horsemanship
Fragmentary remains of the Temple of Castor and Pollux in Rome
Fragmentary remains of the Temple of Castor and Pollux in Rome

483 - 474 BCE - War with Veii also called the Fabian Wars

The war almost became a personal struggle between Fabia, a prominent Roman family and the Veii

  • In the end, Rome won the war, but there was a lot of back-and-forth
  • The Veientes sued for peace and gave tribute in the form of grain and money
Veii and Rome geographical Neighbourhood
Veii and Rome geographical Neighbourhood

477 BCE - Battle of the Cremera

Rome's mind was busy dealing with internal strife and other fronts. The war with the Veii was neglected

  • Roman loss
  • The Veientes pillaged the country side
Heinrich Leutemannː Downfall of the Roman gens Fabia at the Battle of the Cremera (engraving)
Heinrich Leutemannː Downfall of the Roman gens Fabia at the Battle of the Cremera (engraving)

474 BCE - Battle of Cumae

Etruscans loose a naval battle against the Greek colonies and its allies. Although Rome did not take part, it gained from it

  • Minor territorial gain for Rome
  • The Etruscans were severely weakened
The lower city of Cumae seen from the acropolis

471 BCE - Creation of the concilium Plebis

Tensions between the upper class and lower class were always high and had a direct effect on Rome's military and economy. Plebians were allowed to organize by tribes

  • Plebeian Council: Only plebeians
  • Tribal Assembly: Both plebeians and patricians
Chart showing the checks and balances of the Constitution of the Roman Republic
Chart showing the checks and balances of the Constitution of the Roman Republic

471 BCE - Creation of the concilium Plebis

Tensions between the upper class and lower class were always high and had a direct effect on Rome's military and economy.

  • Plebians were allowed to organize by tribes
  • Plebeian Council: Only plebeians
  • Tribal Assembly: Both plebeians and patricians
Chart showing the checks and balances of the Constitution of the Roman Republic
Chart showing the checks and balances of the Constitution of the Roman Republic

458 BCE - Battle Of Mount Algidus against the Aequi

Rome was fighting on two fronts against the Aequi and against the Sabines. All the while social divide was ongoing between the patricians and the plebians

  • The Roman army under Gaius Nautius Rutilus was under siege from the Aequi and on the brink of collapse
  • Lucius Minucius Esquilinus Augurinus is appointed Dictator and wins the battle
The Maschio di Lariano which most likely corresponds to the ancient Mons Algidus
The Maschio di Lariano which most likely corresponds to the ancient Mons Algidus

451 - 449 BCE - Decemviri appointed -> Downfall; creation of the Twelve Tables of Roman law

Law was often left unwritten and subject to the patrician interpretation. These 12 laws were equal to all regardless of social class

  • Decemviri – the 10 men appointed to write the laws
  • Decemviri ultimately caused their downfall by abusing the power
Publication of the Twelve Tables in Rome, approx. 2 BC. Drawing by Silvestre David Mirys (1742–1810); engraved by Claude-Nicolas Malapeau (1755–1803)
Publication of the Twelve Tables in Rome, approx. 2 BC. Drawing by Silvestre David Mirys (1742–1810); engraved by Claude-Nicolas Malapeau (1755–1803)

449 BCE - The Valerio-Horatian Laws is passed by the two consuls Lucius Valerius Poplicola Potitus and Marcus Horatius Barbatus

The Decemviri had rules tyranically, and were especially harsh on the plebian class. The two consuls viewed their situation with sympathy and passed the law

  • The law was passed after the second plebeian secession 
  • Among other things it gave them the right to appeal

447 BCE - According to Tacitus Questor was chosen for the first time by the people

Tacitus was a Roman historian and politician

  • Questors were responsible for state audits, although they could also take military and diplomatic commands
  • Their office remained active even during Byzantine time
The Tabularium was the official records office of ancient Rome
The Tabularium was the official records office of ancient Rome

445 BCE: Lex Canuleia allows patrician-plebeian marriages

Rome continues its journey to equality of classes

  • Patrician men can now marry a plebeian woman and his children considered patricians
  • Empowered the common people to ascend to positions of social prominence and political authority.

443 BCE - Censoriship and the position of Censor is estabished

They were responsible upkeeping societal values, tax collections and giving out government contracts

437 - 435 BCE - Battle of Fidanae -> Capture of Fidanae

The spark of the war started in 438 when the Roman colony, Fidanae rebelled against Rome and allied itself with the Veii

  • Decisive Roman victory, Etruscan king Lars Tolumnius is killed in battle
  • Fidanae is captured 2 years later in 435 BCE
Aulus Cornelius Cossus carries the head of the Etruscan king Lars Tolumnius, 1818 engraving by Bartolomeo Pinelli
Aulus Cornelius Cossus carries the head of the Etruscan king Lars Tolumnius, 1818 engraving by Bartolomeo Pinelli

431 BCE - Battle of Mount Algidus against the Aequi and Volsci

This was the last mayor battle against Rome and the Aequi

  • Aulus Postumius Tubertus is chosen as dictator and military commander for the battle
  • History repeats itself in Mount Algidus: Roman Victory
Location of the Aequi (Equi) in central Italy, 5th century BC.
Location of the Aequi (Equi) in central Italy, 5th century BC.

431 BCE -The temple of Apollo Medicus constructed

God of oracles, healing, archery, music and arts, light, knowledge, herds and flocks, and protection of the young

  • The three columns that remain are from the Augustinian reconstruction
  •  Inaguarated and constructed as a tribute to Apollo the healer because of a plague
The Temple of Apollo Sosianus
The Temple of Apollo Sosianus

426 BCE - The Romans effectively had conquered the last foothold of the Etruscans on the East bank of the river Tiber

421 BCE - Quaestors position open to plebians, and increased to four

They were responsible upkeeping societal values, tax collections and giving out government contracts

wolf-howl

400 BCE - The Legend of the mythical tales Romulus and Remus is first recorded

The story contained greek and roman elements

  • As Rome’s power grows the need to create its own identity grows
  • Stories and Myths play a huge part in creating ideology and culture
The Shepherd Faustulus Bringing Romulus and Remus to His Wife, Nicolas Mignard (1654)
The Shepherd Faustulus Bringing Romulus and Remus to His Wife, Nicolas Mignard (1654)

396 BCE - Dictator Camillus conquers the city of Veii after a 10 year old siege

The Veii fought the Romans valiantly for years with back and forth from both sides

  • Camillus attacked the city from all sides, while a contingent had built a tunnel under it and surprised them
  • The city was sacked, the survivors enslaved and the city was populated by Romans
Site of Veii
Site of Veii

394 BCE - Camillus conquers the city of Falerii

Falerii was an etruscan city which tried to help the Veii several times, this promted the wrath of Rome. It is said that Camillus made the Falerii accept Rome, not by the sword, but by showing that he was a right and just ruler

  • The city kept some autonomy
  • Falerii had to pay the wage of the Roman Army for one Year
Remains of the city wall
Remains of the city wall

391 BCE -The Volsini attack Rome and are defeated

The Volsini appear in historical records immediately after Rome took the city of Veii. They were considered to be on the 12 big Etruscan cities

  • They tried to take advantage of a weaker Rome due to a famine and disease
  • They secured a 20 year truce after agreeing to pay the Roman army for a year and return what they stole
Ruins of Volsini
Ruins of Volsini

390 BCE (traditional date) 387 BCE (probable) - Battle of Allia

The Gauls moved so fast that i stunned the Romans. They formed an Army in haste and were ill prepared for the battle. The Roman army met the Gauls at the Allia River, about 11 miles from Rome It is generally regarded that the Romans were outnumbered and were scared to be encircled

  • Roman Defeat: disorderly retreat and regarding as a “shameful battle”. Heavy losses
  • The Gauls were dumbfounded by the easy victory, that they thought a surprise attack was imminent.
  • The Roman army fled to the city of Veii and Rome
Battle of the Allia by G.Surand
Battle of the Allia by G.Surand

390 BCE (traditional date) 387 BCE (probable) - Sack of Rome by the Gauls

After the disastrous defeat at the Battle of Allia, Rome is left almost unprotected, with only a few good men... Most of Rome's population had already left.

  • A small garrison held out on the Capitoline Hill
  • The Gaul tried to take Capitoline Hill but were repelled with huge losses
  • Brennus, the Gaul Leader divides the army in two:
    • one starts the siege of Capitoline Hill
    • the other forages for food
  • The second army ambushed and destroyed by the legendary commander  Marcus Furius Camillus (according to Livy)
  • Meanwhile, the survivors of Veii, led by Quintus Caedicius repelled an Etruscan force 
  • Camillus is chosen again as Dictator (389 BCE) and his banishment is annulled
  • According to legend, sacred geese on the Capitoline warned of a Gallic night attack, saving the Romans
  • How the siege ends is up for debate. The most popular theory is that Camillus defeated the Gauls
Brennus depicted on the figurehead of the French battleship Brennus.
Ruins of Volsini

389 BCE - Battle of Bolae against the Aequi

Here the Romans are still dealing with the repurcassions of loosing the Battle of Allia and the sacking of Rome. The Etruscans, the Volsci and the Aequi, feeling the republic's weakness, all attacked Rome almost immediately.

  • The Aequi started the Siege of Bolae
  • Marcus Furius Camillus after defeating the Volsci surprised the Aequi and defeated them

389 BCE -The Battle ad Maecium and disintegration fo the Alliance with the Latins and Hernici

Rome's trouble have no end, but Camillus as dictator and military commander is proving to be a genius and defeating Rome's enemy whereever they are. It is important to mention that according to some ancient sources more battles were fought after this one against the traditional Roman enemies, but are not deamed trustworthy by modern historians

  • Some Latins and Hernici joined the Volsci against the Romans
  • Roman victory opened up the Pomptine region to Rome’s influence
Volscian settlements (in red)
Volscian settlements (in red)

It is important to understand how every defeat and emergency changed Roman psyche and philosophy. Especially the sacking of Rome lead to a proufound change in mentality for the republic. Where they had to be more proactive, and the best defense is a preemptive attack. Rome would not wait for its enemies come to it, but they would go towards the enemy.

Speaking after more then 2000 years later, a lot is lost to time, but one thing we see continously is that Rome learns from its mistakes and continuously improves itself on all sides. From their last king, which led to the republic, to the plebians seccesions, and now with the the sacking of Rome. A great overlooked quality of the early Roman history is their ability to learn and adapt extremely fast

381 BCE - Tusculum became the first "municipium cum suffragio"or self autonomous city under the Roman influence

Roman theatre of Tusculum
Roman theatre of Tusculum

381 BCE - Tusculum became the first "municipium cum suffragio"

The Aequi trying to take advantage of the Roman weakness after the Gauls left, entered their territory

  • The Aequi started the Siege of Bolae
  • Marcus Furius Camillus after defeating the Volsci surprised the Aequi and defeated them
Ruins of Volsini
Ruins of Volsini

381 BCE - Tusculum became the first "municipium cum suffragio"

The Aequi trying to take advantage of the Roman weakness after the Gauls left, entered their territory

  • The Aequi started the Siege of Bolae
  • Marcus Furius Camillus after defeating the Volsci surprised the Aequi and defeated them
Ruins of Volsini
Ruins of Volsini